George Catlett Marshall's distinguished career includes the titles of Army Chief of Staff, 5-Start General of the Army, Secretary of Defense, Secretary of State, and aide to General Pershing. He excelled both in the field (earning various medals and helping to train others during WWI), as a tactical commander (masterminding the US victory in WWII by emphasizing mass movement and morale), and as a statesman (engineering the Marshall plan which would rebuild Europe, as well as increase the US's power in the heating-up Cold War).

These accomplishments showed through when he became Time Magazine Man of the Year twice, in 1944 and 1948. also, Marshall won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.

For more information, read:
The Cold War by Mike Sewell
World Book (1992): Marshall, George Catlett
European Recovery Plan Speech at Harvard University
http://www.en.wikiquote.org/wiki/George_Marshall

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In the 1800s, the Ottoman Empire was instructed by both France and Russia to protect Catholic and Orthodox Christians that were within its empire. These two instructions conflicted and the Ottomans chose to side with France. Seeing an opportunity to limit Russian expansion, Britain, Austria and Prussia also support the "Allies" (France, Ottomans). This angered Russia and it invaded the Danubian Principalities in 1853, as well as destroyed the Ottoman Black Sea fleet at the Battle of Sinop.

The Allies then sent an ultimatum (which was accepted by the Russians) but didn't stop the attack. They landed on the Crimean Peninsula and began the Siege of Sevastopol (the Russian naval base). Twice, the Russians tried to break out, including once at the Battle of Bacalava. This battle witnessed the famous Charge of the Light Brigade (which ended in a slaughter of British cavalrymen). Eventually, the Russians surrendered and the Crimean War ended.

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For more information, read:
The Guinness Book of Military Blunders by Geoffrey Regan
Military History Magazine (April 2006): Crimean War Siege
http://www.crimeanwar.org/cwrsentry.html
http://www.victorianweb.org/history/crimea/immcauses.html

Urban warfare is a different style of warfare because an enemy could be hiding anywhere, each house must be cleared out individually, and no powerful weapons may be used out of fear for collateral damage. However, it is disadvantageous to use because of the danger it puts your own civilians in. Despite this, however, many weaker enemies resort to urban warfare in order to combat a powerful enemy. For this reason, the US has developed MOUT (Military Operations on Urban Terrain) training.

The Battle of Stalingrad (1942-43) in WWII is a prime example of urban warfare. It was initiated due to Operation Barbarossa, the German push eastward towards Moscow. Stalingrad was a key target due to its symbolic name and its industrial capacity. Initially, the Russians under Zhukov were almost completely pushed out of the city by Paulus's Sixth Army. However, powerful Russian tank, skilled Russian snipers, and masses of Russian soldiers (whose life expectancy was less than 24 hours) fought back and even surrounded the Germans in Operation Uranus. Eventually, after a failed rescue attempt by Manstein's German Army, Paulus surrendered and the Russians won the battle.

Military History Podcast is sponsored by Armchair General Magazine

For more information, read:
The Dictionary of Battles by David Chandler
The Guinness Book of Military Blunders: Operation Barbarossa by Geoffrey Regan
http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/wwii/stalingrad/default.aspx

The following are three famous forms of liquid fire throughout military history in chronological order: Greek Fire (used at sea), Flame Throwers (used on land), Napalm (used from the air).

• Greek Fire: Invented by Callinicus in 673AD, it was one of the reasons why the Byzantine Empire survived. Impossible to extinguish, incredibly adhesive, and ignited by water, it was extremely useful in naval battles and in defending the city of Constantinople. For these reasons, the Byzantine Empire always tried to keep Greek Fire their own secret. In 1453, the secret was lost forever and we still don't know how to replicate it.

• Flame Throwers: Invented by Richard Fiedler in 1901, the most common form is the backpack flamethrower. The backpack flamethrower has two canisters: one for compressed flammable gas, and the other for flammable liquid. They were used especially in WWII to eradicate Japanese from tunnel systems, but they are effective against all kinds of fortification. However, they are extremely dangerous to the user, and only useful in certain circumstances.

• Napalm: First used in WWII, it was a key part of air power during the Korean War and the Vietnam War. In the latter, it was especially useful against entrenched Vietcong; in the former, it was especially useful against tanks. However, it is considered an inhumane weapon and in 1980, the UN decreed that it shouldn't be used against civilians.

For more information, read:

Military History Magazine (April 2006): The Lost Secret of Greek Fire

ABC-Clio: US at War: Napalm

http://www.firstworldwar.com/weaponry/flamethrowers.htm

http://science.howstuffworks.com/flamethrower.htm

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Ninja's, often thought of as the world's first special forces, were prominent throughout Japanese warfare in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries. Centered mainly in the Iga and Koga province, ninjas trained under the supervision of the shonin (village leader).

In order to enter a home, a ninja used foldable saws (to break down doors), handclaws (to climb walls), flotation shoes (to walk across a moat), and disguises (usually as a yamabushi monk or a zen monk). Contrary to popular opinion, ninjas did not always dress in black.

Once inside the home, the ninja used many techniques to move and listen secretly. They used irogome (colored rice) to leave messages for future ninjas or some other ally. To listen in on a conversation, ninjas used a small tube that could be used to listen through walls. Then, to retreat, the ninja used smoke "grenades" and flash "grenades".

As for the assassin aspect of ninjas, their main weapon was a short sword with shuriken (throwing stars) hidden in the hilt. Other weapons include makibashi (caltrops filled with poison), a traditional bow, and a shinobi-gama (a sickle with a chain attached).

There were some female ninjas, although they were used less frequently.

For more information, read
Military History Magazine (March 2006): Intrigue (Ninjas) and

http://www.taots.co.uk/content/view/31/27/

Military History Podcast is sponsored by Armchair General Magazine